Contents Preface Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 History of semiconductor devices and ICs 1 1.2 Moore's Law- transistor scaling 10 1.3 Die yield and die cost 13 References 16 Chapter 2 Semiconductor material fundamentals 17 2.1 Atomic structures 17 2.1.1 Elements and element periodic table 17 2.1.2 Bohr's theory-orbits 22 2.1.3 Distribution of electrons- valence electrons 29 2.1.4 Chemical bonds 30 2.2 Crystal structures 33 2.2.1 General material structures 33 2.2.2 Crystallography- diamond structure and zinc blende structure 43 2.2.3 Crystallographic notation 44 2.2.4 Bohr's theory- energy level and energy band 46 2.3 Energy band theory 51 2.3.1 Insulator, semiconductor and conductor 51 2.3.2 Electrons and holes 53 2.3.3 Generation and recombination 55 2.4 Doping of semiconductors60 2.4.1 Doping elements 60 2.4.2 Doping: n-type 61 2.4.3 Doping: p-type 63 2.4.4 Counter doping 64 2.5 Carriers distribution 66 2.5.1 Fermi function and Fermi level 66 2.5.2 Density of states 68 2.5.3 Electron and hole concentrations 69 2.6 Carrier drift and diffusion 80 2.6.1 Carrier scattering 80 2.6.2 Carrer drift- drift currents and mobility 82 2.6.3 Electric field and energy band bending 85 2.6.4 Carrier diffusion- diffusion currents and Einstein relation 37 References 90 Chapter 3 Semiconductor device fundamentals 92 3.1 PN junction 92 3.1.1 Formation of depletion region 92 3.1.2 Built-in potential 94 3.1.3 Distribution of eletric field and electric potential 96 3.1.4 Effect of applied voltage 102 3.1.5 Depletion capacitance 115 3.2 Metal-semiconductor contacts and MOS capacitors 117 3.2.1 Schottky diode and Ohmic contact 117 3.2.2 MOS capacitance and measurement 126 3.2.3 MOS energy band diagram 128 3.2.4 Capacitance-voltage characteristics 141 3.3 MOSFETs 145 3.3.1 Current-voltage characteristics 145 3.3.2 Types and circuit symbols of MOSFETs 166 3.3.3 Switch model of MOSFETs 174 3.4 Bipolar junction transistors 176 3.4.1 PN junction- a brief review 176 3.4.2 BIT structure and circuit symbols 178 3.4.3 NPN BJT operation- - a qualitative analysis 182 3.4.4 NPN BJT operation- a quantitative analysis 184 References 190 Chapter 4 Semiconductor fabrication fundamentals 191 4.1 IC fabrication techniques 202 4.1.1 Thin film formation 202 4.1.2 Photolithography and etching 236 4.1.3 Doping 257 4.2 IC resistor and diode process 271 4.2.1 IC resistor- masks and process steps 271 4.2.2 Design rules 276 4.2.3 Sheet resistance 283 4.2.4 Layout design of an IC resistor 284 4.2.5 Diode- masks and process steps 288 4.3 MOSFET process 290 4.3.1 NMOSFET process flow and layout 290 4.3.2 Local oxidation of silicon 292 4.3.3 CMOS n-well process flow 296 4.4 BJT process 302 4.4.1 BIT process steps 302 4.4.2 Layout of an NPN BIT IC 304 References306 Chapter 5 Integrated circuits- -concepts and design 308 5.1 NMOS digital circuits 308 5.1.1 NMOS digital circuits analysis- logic and calculation 308 5.1.2 MOSIS design rules for NMOS ICs 337 5.1.3 Layouts of NMOS logic families 342 5.2 CMOS digital circuits 349 5.2.1 CMOS digital eircuits analysis 349 5.2.2 MOSIS design rules for CMOS ICs 362 5.2.3 MOS transistors in series/ parallel connection 364 5.2.4 CMOS inverter, NOR gates and NAND gates 367 5.2.5 Ratioed logic and combinational equivalent circuit 381 5.2.6 Dynamic circuits 389 5.3 MOS analog circuits 416 5.3.1 MOSFET active resistors and potential dividers 417 5.3.2 MOSFET common-source stages 419 5.3.3 CMOS push- pull amplifiers 434 5.3.4 MOSFET current mirrors 439 5.3.5 MOSFET differential amplifiers 444 References 457 AppendixI Properties of semiconductor materials 460 Appendix I Symbols and constant 462 Appendix M L-Edit Quick Guide 468
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